BIOLOGY

List of Topics

1. General endocrinology: Endocrine signals, Hormones and their effects
   • The definition of homeostasis
   • What is a hormone?
   • Hormones in the circulation, hormonal targets
   • Hormone and cell interactions, hormone receptors
   • Difference between hormonal and neural signal
2. The Pituitary gland and hormones, role of the Hypothalamus in regulation
   • The pituitary gland - location, function, structure
   • Structure of Posterior pituitary gland- connection with the brain
   • Hormones of Posterior Pituitary gland (effects of oxytocin, vasopressin)
   • Hormones of Anterior Pituitary gland (effects of growth hormone, adrenocorticotropic hormone, thyroid-stimulating hormone, follicle-stimulating hormone, luteinizing hormone, prolactin)
3. Peripheral Endocrine organs and hormones
   • Pineal gland hormone and its effect (melatonin)
   • Thyroid gland hormones and their effects (thyroxine, triiodothyronine, parathyroid hormone)
   • Pancreatic hormones and their effects (insulin, glucagon)
   • Adrenal gland - cortical hormones (aldosterone, cortisol, androgens)
   • Adrenal gland - medullary hormones (adrenaline / epinephrine)
4. Nervous Tissue (Components, Classification), Generation and Conduction of Neuronal Signal. Action Potential
   • Structure of a neuron
   • Action potential
   • Role and definition of synapses
   • Difference between hormonal and neural signal
5. Central nervous system: Cerebrum, cerebellum, brainstem
   • Structure (parts) of the brain
   • Role of the cerebellum
   • Role of the neurocortex (cerebrum)
   • Role of the brainstem
   • Function of the Hypothalamus
6. Peripheral nervous system: Somatic, Vegetative nervous system, Spinal Cord
   • Definition of Reflexes
   • Function of the somatic nervous system
   • Role of the vegetative nervous system
   • Sympathetic nervous system, Fight or Flight reaction
   • Parasympathetic nervous system
7. Structure and Function of the Human Kidney
   • Gross anatomy of the kidney (cortex, medulla, pelvis)
   • Urine formation processes: filtration, reabsorption, secretion
   • Role of kidneys in the body’s water balance
   • Basic definitions: osmosis, oncotic pressure
8. Nephron (structure and role)
   • Structural components of the nephron
   • Ultrafiltration in the glomerulus and Bowman's capsule function
   • Major roles of tubules in excreting and reabsorbing nutrients, water, ions
   • Movements of the glucose molecules in the nephron
9. Filtration –Reabsorption. Regulation of Kidney Function
   • Definitions of filtration and reabsorption processes
   • Tubular reabsorption: mechanisms (diffusion, active transport, osmotic gradients)
   • Tubular secretion: removal of waste and excess ions
   • Hormonal regulation of kidney functions (ADH, aldosterone)
10. Structure and Function of the Mammalian Heart
    • Anatomy of the heart: pericardium, chambers, major blood vessels leaving the heart, valves
    • Coronary arteries and blood supply of the heart
    • Histologic structure: endocardium, myocardium, epicardium
    • Cardiac muscle cells
    • Roles of systemic and lung circulations
11. The Cardiac Cycle, Electrical Conduction System of the Heart
    • Major phases of the cardiac cycle
    • Pacemaker cells in SA and AV node, and the conduction system
    • ECG waves and segments
12. Structure and function of Arteries, Veins, and Capillaries
    • General structure of blood vessels
    • Structural differences of arteries and veins
    • Major roles of the arterial system
    • Major roles of the capillary system
    • Major roles of the venous system
13. The relevance of Microcirculation (processes at the capillary bed)
    • Functional anatomy of the capillaries
    • Role of capillary circulation
    • Exchange processes: osmosis, diffusion, and filtration
    • Oxygen transport in the capillary bed
14. Structure and function of the Gastro-Intestinal-Tract
    • Segments of the GI tract
    • Histological layers
    • Functions of each segment in the digestion and absorption of different nutrients
    • Microbial flora in the large intestine
15. Role of enzymes in digestion
    • Glands that produce digestive enzymes
    • Enzymes involved in carbohydrate breakdown: amylase, maltase
    • Proteolytic enzymes: pepsin, trypsin, chymotrypsin
    • Lipid digestion: lipase
16. Morphology and function of red blood cells and white blood cells
    • Morphology of red blood cells
    • Function of red blood cells in oxygen and CO2 transport
    • Types of white blood cells
    • Immunological roles of white blood cells
17. The Immune System. Innate and Adaptive Immunity
    • Role of the immune system
    • Immune cells, organs of the immune system
    • Defensive mechanisms of the Innate Immune System (phagocytes, natural killer cells, etc.)
    • Adaptive immunity (antigens, antibodies, B and T cells)
    • Role of Fever
18. The Respiratory System - Structure and Function
    • Upper respiratory tract until the larynx
    • Lower respiratory tract from the larynx to the alveoli
    • Supporting structures: diaphragm, intercostal muscles, thoracic cage
    • Respiratory movements
19. Gas Exchange in the Lung and on the Tissue Level
    • Alveolar structure
    • Basic definitions: diffusion and partial pressure of gases
    • Factors affecting gas exchange
    • Hemoglobin's role in oxygen and carbon dioxide transport
20. The Structure of Striated Muscle
    • Function of the striated muscle
    • Differences from smooth muscles, heart muscles
    • Definition of a sarcomere
    • Role of Actin and Myosin Fibers
21. The Molecular Mechanism of Muscle Contraction
    • Connection between the nervous system and muscles
    • The chemical synapse
    • Importance of Calcium in muscles
    • The cross-bridge cycle
22. Male reproduction: reproductive organs, hormones
    • Anatomy of male inner sexual organs: testes, accessory sexual glands
    • External genitalia: penis, scrotum
    • Structure and production of spermatozoa
    • Main roles of male reproductive hormones: testosterone, FSH, LH
23. Female reproduction: reproductive organs, hormones
    • Anatomy of female inner reproductive organs: ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, cervix, vagina
    • External genitalia: vulva, clitoris
    • The ovarian cycle
    • Main roles of female reproductive hormones: estrogen, progesterone, FSH and LH
    • Fertilization and pregnancy
24. Cell structure (Mitochondria, Endoplasmic Reticulum, Golgi)
    • Definition of the mammalian cell
    • Structure and function of the nucleus
    • Role of the Endoplasmic Reticulum
    • Role of the Golgi membrane
    • Membrane receptors
25. Comparison of Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic Cells
    • Definition of a prokaryotic cell, examples
    • Structure and function of the cell membrane
    • Roles of membranes inside the cells, vesicles, and cell organelles
    • Definition of the mitochondria, chloroplasts
26. Cell division: Mitosis
    • Definition of mitosis, phases
    • Biological importance of mitosis
    • Examples of mitosis
    • Difference between mitosis and meiosis
27. Cell division: Meiosis
    • Definition of meiosis
    • Biological importance of meiosis
    • Examples of meiosis
    • Difference between mitosis and meiosis
28. Flow of genetic information: Genetic code; DNA replication
    • The role of the DNA
    • Structure and function of chromosomes
    • Replication errors
    • The process of DNA replication
    • Mendelian inheritance, Genetics of AB0 blood types
29. Synthesis of RNAs: Transcription; Synthesis of Proteins: Translation
    • The role of RNA, definition, and function of transcription
    • Definition of mRNA, tRNA
    • Function of ribosomes
    • Process of protein synthesis, function of translation
    • Location of the above steps in the mammalian cells